Originally, this document was distributed to my students during the first class of each academic year (it has changed since quite often, and continues to be regular).
I. - GENERAL
Man is not only intelligence, but also a feeling. Thus, to understand and to learn, if you do call to one aspect, the intelligence, that is to say the brain, the task is daunting: You have to put the second, affectivity, that is to say the heart. How? Loving your work, looking to the curious, original, exciting, etc.. The joy of work, combining that of the mind ( dilatatio cordis ), and that of the heart ( dilatatio mentis ), according to a formula of St. Bernard (1091-1153). This changes everything!
Every law student should be able to communicate orally and in writing in a correct and precise understanding of the content of documents (laws, decrees, orders, contracts, judgments and decisions, scholarly articles), and finally to reason. Also, I can not encourage you starting to develop your skills in these aspects. Intelligence is not given a stable and fixed: The more it is sought the more it increases. Get Active: Be willing to do so, to improve yourself, to understand and learn! It's your future you are preparing ... (I take this opportunity to address you work for yourself, not for professeuers! A strike of students is strictly speaking impossible, since it takes place against an employer for which the employee works, to get him some benefit, generally, the " strike " students are the whims of spoiled children - students from Western countries are privileged - manipulated by political movements. - costs about a French student 7000 euros per year to the nation, not to mention medical expenses or scholarships). Do you create the greatest possible number of abbreviations for your personal notes. When you could not write about something that seems important, do not further delay, and do not disturb others by asking for clarification from your neighbors: wait until the end of the course. Do not change or felt pen to put the titles in color, this may cause you to lose the thread of discourse: it's time, at home, to highlight all the colors of the rainbow in the sky or supervise them your way. Do not try to transcribe the substance of the articles of the Civil Code that your master bed in your home, you can copy and, more importantly, to meditate. Learn your lessons as you go. Do not wait until the end of term , even if you are gifted with a good memory! When you find something unclear or uncertain, consult a manual. However, it is not stupid to learn by heart, to know at any cost and at any cost, but to learn and be better able to act effectively (in the common good).Understanding means to internalize the ideas and knowledge.
Some need to learn and remember, to recite or to sing rhythmically matter: Whether they do at home.
Whenever there is cited an article of the Civil Code or a law (or the reference to an article), read it and reread it, paying close attention to the vocabulary. Similarly, when you encounter a legal term, consult a dictionary of law. Do you create, over the day, a small dictionary. Always seek the reason of the legal rules that you encounter.
Learn to write by practicing with homework sessions in Tutorial, or exercises that you submit to free your loved ones. Write, write more, write still, this should be your motto. Write summaries of courses (and sections of the doctrine), the questions can be asked, the answers they deserve, and so on. - When citing a living author's name should be preceded by Mr., when s' acts of a deceased author, simply use his name (egRaynaud ). Before dealing with a question, locate and then give a definition.
Read, read much read good teachers of law and the great writers not legal. " The study of texts can never quite be recommended and is the shortest way, the safer and more enjoyable for all kinds Scholarship; things have first-hand, then to the source; wield, revised text, learn the memory, list it on occasions, especially thinking to penetrate the meaning in all its extent and its circumstances " ( La Bruyere). Reread including Racine for the measurement and the discipline of writing, La Rochefoucauld for art forms, Voltaire for clarity of expression and transparency, Chateaubriand (for Memoires d'Outre-tombe ) for power. As you read, pay attention to words, style, expressions, etc. . "Mastery of words is the beginning of wisdom " ( Antisthenes, pupil of Socrates). Do not blush to try to increase your vocabulary. Consider that Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor while he was, was concerned to enrich his (as he wrote in 163 to his former master Fronton ). Be the gardeners words! Have fun searching and finding their etymology, often beautiful or picturesque, sometimes illuminating. The unsecured creditorreceives no security: He has only written one of his hand, according to the literal meaning of the word of Greek origin, the boyfriend is the one with whom bread is shared, while at the foot the letter is the room that is shared with the friend (of Spanish camara ), and the bed with thepartner (from the Latin cum with, and cubo , cubare be coated). The database computer or on Internet is a great convenience, they will be probably very useful in your professional life. But at this stage of your business, the studies, they should be used with caution. For information only purpose of these
Can not be an end in itself, you may be overwhelmed by a stream of data (eg stops), more than knowledge. But what matters is to know understanding, which requires a personal effort of thought, which no one or nothing can ever provide the apprentice. It is clear that the information does not replace thinking. " What you hear and see, do so to understand it. Clarified your doubts. And all you can, make haste to put in the library of your memory " ( In armariolo lied quidquid reponere satage pottery, St. Thomas Aquinas, De modo studendi ).
Be a good listener, and expand your attention span (the philosopher Simone Weil said, probably with some exaggeration, that the training faculty of attention is almost the sole interest of studies!). In a debate, n'opinez if you do not know the question. Before deciding, one must consider, weigh the pros and cons, consider the arguments, etc. . According to a note from Thucydides , ignorance is bold and knowledge reserved.Wrap yourself in humility and modesty. In a conversation with someone older and more educated than you, do not tell her " you're right " or "that's right " , because you do not judge it or to give her good points! In a broader way, and by extension, meditate on these words of Camus: "The democrat is modest because it is one that allows an opponent to be right, so that leaves him speak, and who agrees to consider to his arguments . "
Check back often for advice on the French language in this document. Keep it safe: in a few years you'll be happy to find it (probably much more than today, where it will seem very dry at first). And to improve the way you work, you can play The taste of the studies and how to acquire it (Mr. Piatelli Palmarini, ed. Odile Jacob, 1992) and, more importantly, a stimulating little book by the philosopher Jean Guitton, The intellectual work (Flammarion, last ed., 1994).
To study with some chance of efficiency much of the Civil Law and any business, it is necessary to know thoroughly the Law of Obligations: It is a prerequisite because it is the basis on which it is based . Those of you who have gaps in this field must always fill them with a manual.Otherwise their work will be vain. Changes in the law, economics and technology are now so fast that everyone should be able to constantly adapt to new situations, complementing his knowledge. There is nothing as it facilitates a strong general education, which provides the foundation and used to keep the mind awake, accompanied by a solid Favourite channels its domain (for a lawyer a perfect knowledge of the Law of Obligations).
II. - EXAMINATIONS
Exam, make sure the readability of your writing and presentation of your duty. Only use fountain pens (that is to say or pens or markers).Remember that the examiners have to be corrected in a few days many copies! Nothing is more boring! Writing unpleasant or painful uncomfortable. Take care of your style and spelling ( courtesy of the language, according to Jean Guéhenno ). Write in full (do not use abbreviations). Omit or dot the " i " , or hyphens (especially in that is to say), or accents, which are part of the spelling and, moreover, greatly facilitate the reading the corrector. Remember, contractions (eg If it is not if it is ), but reject those that are obviously at fault ( that, for this ,you've got for you ). Use it wisely capitalization at the beginning of sentences, for proper names, for state agencies when they are unique (Court of Cassation, Commercial Chamber of the Court, but not therefore to Court of Appeal) for codes (Civil Code, Commercial Code), and conventions as they relate to a diplomatic agreement (European Convention on Human Rights) do not add it to rhyme in the middle of sentences, as is the trend now. See the subtlety of French, Greek, Italian, Senegal, Tunisia, etc. . with a capital letter (designating a person of that nationality) and French, Greek, Italian, Senegal, Tunisia, not capitalized (for all other directions).
To partial and written exams, do not try to reach a large number of pages: You will not be judged on the quantity. Instead, try to focus your explanations, so both accurate and complete.
When you have to deal with a practical case, it is unnecessary to begin by recalling the facts, you may want to announce the plan, although it, in such an exercise, was not important. The plan of a case comment or dissertation must imperatively be announced at the end of the Introduction, and include two (never less) or three parts (never more). Do not confuse a comment off with an essay: In the first knowledge must be applied to the species proposed for your consideration.
At the oral, hide your emotions. Answer questions in a clear, coherent, constructing sentences. Define and qualify the concepts used before to give examples. So, do not start your answer by saying " Unjust enrichment is when ... " but " unjust enrichment is a quasi-contract, which was enshrined in case law, etc.. " . Students who have difficulty in speaking must be exercised in this event during the year, engaging with peers at training sessions, under the conditions of the examination.
III. - OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE
The clarity of French intellectual language if there ever was, he [is] basically its abstractions [...]. The first evidence of abstraction of French is not exactly poverty, but tempered the richness of his vocabulary, which is about 93 000 words in front of 317,000 words of English. Thus the French is one of the poorest of the Romance languages: Because he came from the Latin, which was poor, he received fewer contributions than its neighbors Iberian exotic. However, it is one of the languages the most accurate. It is primarily the abstract, being lower in quantity, is more intelligible than the concrete. It is also the French, thanks to the abundance of these hinges is the thought that subordinating conjunctions, emphasizes the relationship of people and things rather than on their sensible qualities.It's still that French is fitted with a variety of prefixes and suffixes, which allows it to form word families can be very extensive, but also that these affixes, because come mostly from Latin or Greek are therefore more intelligible, even to non-French, provided they have a general knowledge.
| | Leopold Sedar Senghor ( † ),
former President of Senegal,
of the French Academy |
A. - Preliminary observations.
While advising you to try to respect the advice and rules on this site, I should first like to relativize the scope, not because the "purist " would be a defect, but because the perfection of the language is a utopia, and it is hardly writers not committing mistakes, I'm afraid that my own pages on this site have some (I will be grateful to people who discover and report to me). Also, concern for the correction should not deter you write and converse, as the will to act in the best possible should not prevent action. Moreover, what matters is the persistent effort towards quality rather than to achieve perfection (as well as moral what is expected of the agent, depending on what is called the law of gradualness, is the tension to a greater improvement than the implementation of an immediate external precept). Also, if you have a style, then small errors will be forgiven. These limits set, I can only advise you to try to write and speak as much as possible, that is to say, to think as much as possible (the two are intertwined) so doing, hitting you in the difficulty in trying to avoid repetition and stereotyped formulas, it is likely that own music, your own, will emerge ...
Our language, heir to the Greek method and the effectiveness Roman, who made Europe, is a specific language, particularly well suited to the right. Better, French is the legal language of choice. That is why he was for a long time the only language of diplomacy. The Treaty of Radstadt (1714), formalizing the prior use, said the mandatory language of diplomacy was French: " Now the interests of the people and the wishes of Kings will rely on a more fixed we shall not sow over the war in words of peace " (Rivarol, Discourse on the universality of the French language, Desjonquères, 1998, p. 134). But the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, knew for the first time a second version, in English, this practice has gradually spread, not without serious consequences, so the English version of Resolution 242 of the United Nations (1967), on the Arab-Israeli war, is the source of drama. According to the French version the Israelis will withdraw " occupied territories " (not in, but the territories, thus all these territories) or English does not know about this statement: The English version speaks of the evacuation " of Occupied territories " , which can mean either of or from , this ambiguity fueled the controversy sparked wars and the tension that still exists between Israel and the Palestinians. On the other hand, the lack of rigor of the English forces to insert a glossary in international contracts written in that language, stating the meaning of words and expressions, even legal to be used in the text, a place common, partly true, is to say that English is easy: Here, in truth, it is a source of difficulty. Similarly, flexibility is vaunted acquired at the cost of some imprecision. So, should we translate the World Trade Center by "Mall in the world " or "World Trade Centre " , the lack of marking the genitive preposition preventing to know the basic message?
A good knowledge of the language is a powerful factor of equality between citizens, and integration of people of modest ( let alone immigrant).On the other hand, " the defense of our language is not a hobby of old men with an umbrella or hat ladies good and it is vital to the protection of our most basic identity and interests of our basic . This is due to colonization Reister and concerted flatly economic reasons, as all settlements on Earth " ( Duneton C., Le Figaro literary Feb. 23-24. 2008, p. 8). Indeed, with English that is spreading everywhere, and it introduces a culture, the next like a shadow, trade.
Since our language is precise, it is necessary to have the subtleties: Also, lawyers have always had a reputation (justified) to use a refined language. Robert Estienne in 1557 paid homage to the language of lawyers of the Parliament of Paris, of the Chancery and the Court of Auditors, " the language now scrambling esquel places and votes in the highest purity in other places " ( Treaty French grammar ). It is your responsibility to maintain this tradition. It will be an obligation to your occupation as a career lawyer (including enterprise), to write contracts with one big security (excluding one letter job application of enamel of inaccuracies or errors will lead likely that it will be thrown into the basket without further consideration). Also, work tirelessly to better understand the French language and to dominate and it will make your efforts a hundredfold by the ineffable joys, all your life. " Language is a drama whose words are the actors " ( Ferdinand Brunetiere ). If necessary, have the courage to take French lessons, grammar, vocabulary, writing and speaking, etc. . Perhaps there is software to perform the exercises interactive with his computer.
Make it a habit, even you, trying to speak correct French, with words precise . " Evil naming things is adding to the woes of the world "(Camus). It is appalling to hear so many young people designated by a catch-all (and poor or coarse) very different realities, for example: He or she is great , about a film, a girl, d a book, a car, a professor of food, etc. . - The scruffy and poverty of vocabulary, as carelessness in grammar, necessarily echo the thought. Any disease of the tongue is a disease of the mind. " There can be one hand shape, the other the bottom. A bad style, it is a thought imperfect " ( Jules Renard ). " It is in the language are the ideas " ( Alain ). The subtleties of the language " contribute to the elasticity of the mind " ( M. Druon, France under the command of a corpse, Editions de Fallois, 2000, p.109).When speaking, avoid these useless slag, which mark the speaker does not control his thoughts, the kind uh, you know, what, you need to know, say (besides, say, does not mean I'm saying, but I'm not sure ), I say (say directly what you have to say!), it's true (which is much abused today, which can be replaced by elegantly of course, followed by a comma). As for rudeness, so commonplace, it is a form of intellectual impotence.
Consider these strong reflections of Jean-Louis Curtis : " The first freedom is the one that gives control of speech, and [...] the worst dispositions, as well as worst poverty is not able to speak and write in a clear, correct and accurate is to be an under-developed language, a pariah of verbal communication " ( The World as it goes, ed. the Rock, 1995 18). And these, more poetic, Oscar Wilde: " The words have not only a music as sweet as that of viol and lute, colors as rich and vibrant as those that make us admire the paintings of the Venetians and Spanish, and a plastic form as safe and accomplished that which reveals itself in marble or bronze, but the thought, passion and spirituality are theirs also, and belong, moreover, that alone " ( Aphorisms ).
No doubt the language is not static: It has evolved and will evolve further. Of course, all the great writers, Chateaubriand to Malraux , toBalzac or Baudelaire , have made, consciously or not, with the licensing rules more established. But, before you use this creative freedom, must still have its good start with language, so the learning and respect. If you have a taste for writing, or engineering (it is still uncommon), you have time, completed your studies, your graduation, to provide proof. At that time, it will take place may be a reversal in the attitude of third parties to you: This turn, attributed to fault a student, will be regarded as an original joke when it is from the pen of a professor or a published poet (depending on whether you are powerful or miserable. ..). Yet this is not to speak or write like a book: A personal touch is always welcome.
B. - Tips.
1 °. - Do not write the sentence without a verb (a practice that is spreading among journalists and even among academics, as " evidence of a bygone era " ). Avoid Expresssions "history "(as"history of fun , "then it is simpler and more elegant to say" for fun " , while in other cases, useto ) and "but here " (currently used indiscriminately), to repeat a word at frequent intervals (except when the repetition is inevitable, because it is the essential theme resulting in the development, or institution that it is necessary to appoint, Thus it is best to repeating, if only a few lines, theSupreme Court of using an incorrect paraphrase, such as the High Court. The accumulation of relative pronouns ( that, which, which, whatever ) is inelegant, and makes reading indigestible. In a letter Flaubert criticized the style of Lamartine (about his extensive work not poetic), which " often confused in heavy turnings that, that, etc.. I love the crisp phrases that stand straight, while standing Couran t " (Correspondence, Pleiades, Vol III, 1980, p. 105). I think, for the sake of clarity, you should compel this than there ever more than three by sentence, better, do it there are two very close to each other (for example, rather than " The Court of Appeal, which says that is illegal " , write " saying ... " ). The impersonal pronoun it has its uses, but today it is used improperly to the detriment of personal pronouns, including journalists of mass media seem unaware, so, beware of it : Do not use when the idea or the feeling you express is really impersonal ( " It is said that Rodrigo will win the elections " ). In this regard, see the subject of contest by the Berlin Academy in 1783 on the universality of French (won by Rivarol ), and ended with " Is it to assume that it preserves? " (this prominent place), not " Can we assume that it preserves? " . And at risk of falling into the folly of Precious ridiculous of Molière who chased the sounds " low " , it seems to me that it is absolutely prohibited, as it is ill-sounding! In general, prefer the personal pronouns or because the use is that a student does not use the I, which is considered presumptuous, make use of a twist that avoids (for example, instead of writing " to the extent that one accepts the existence of a contractual liability " , you can write your sentence: " Since the very existence of such liability is admitted " ).
For the female form, it is necessary to distinguish the one hand, functions, titles and ranks, on the other trades. The first belong to the neuter gender (rendered in French by the male), because the nature of the function, title or grade is independent of the person who exercises or carries (eg Bachelor, Master in Law, the doctor, the associate, the mayor, the deputy minister, including about girls or women). However, trades can have a feminine form, which should be used when available and talk to a woman (eg the teacher, the baker, lawyer, researcher, actress , the dancer). If this is not the case, use the masculine (which, grammatically, include the feminine, as the French do not know the true neutral), saying, for example, teacher, doctor, even if it is a woman, it is ridiculous to talk about Madam teacher (this is a defect in the language, the feminine article " the " can not precede a noun, or vice versa, it can be done, although this is more rarely, a feminine word designates a function, even if it is exercised by a man, as the sentinel, the rookie, the messenger or watch [ the person who looks after a boat ] ). There is nothing here of anti feminist! These solutions arise simply from the fact that the French language has no true neutral so that, grammatically, the masculine includes the feminine, hence also a Toulouse Toulouse and Toulouse are all, as voters and voters are voters, workers' workers, etc. , so it is useless and foolish to repeat the same noun for a group of people composed of men and women. Besides, French brand of femininity is not incidentally make the distinction between male and female. The French Academy, faithful to the mission assigned to it by its statutes of 1635, published a definitive text on this issue in 1984, written by two scholars of international reputation, Dumezil and Claude Levi-Strauss.Disregarding of this document or the negative opinion of the General Committee of terminology, or an address in the same direction of the French Academy to the President of the Republic, the French Documentation went public in early 2002 a catalog of businesses , titles and functions systematically and arbitrarily " feminized "(sometimes grotesque, contrary to common sense, the euphony and the" genius "of our language, as Professor, Doctor [doctor would have been better], principals, teachers [then there teacher!], Research [when there is a researcher!], writer, agent, head [chieftainess is ugly but would make more sense], author [authoress is ugly but would make more sense, the feminine male names -tor being regularly -ordinator : actor actress, teacher-teacher, director and chief]). The publication of the aforementioneddocumentation French intervened on the instructions of the Prime Minister at the time ( Lionel Jospin , who had no power or authority in this area, moreover, this politician had a very rough knowledge of French , quite worrying given the responsibilities that were his at the time, and that may have contributed to its electoral setbacks, as he committed the blunders and misinterpretations during his speeches everywhere, including in Parliament, and even when his trips abroad). The press and television were quick to follow these instructions which are not only stupid and have no basis in linguistics or anthropology, but have no legal value. It should therefore ignore this unfortunate publication, as recalled by the Academe French in a statement on March 22, 2002, noting that " The systematic and thoughtless choice [implied by the ignorant] of the female form establishes the contrary, within the same language, a segregation that goes against the goal . " I note incidentally that no one is outraged that the feminine word "person" to use so common and so basic, can refer both to a woman than a man! Finally, against the word author, researcher, doctor, teacher, professor, principal, I note that the "e" is not a universal brand of women, particularly in precisely the words in -er : It is only include heat, whiteness, color, flower, warmth, sister, all female, only adjectives distinguish the male -eur and female -eure(major, major, greater, superior, etc.., often comparative) never nouns (time is not the feminine of time!).
2 °. - The accents should always be given (and do not confuse the acute accent and grave accent é è). In this regard, remember that taking a wonderful caret: It pleases, it seems , and their compounds. Similarly, it is such a focus in the third person singular of the more-than-perfect subjunctive ( I wish he had succeeded and he was commended ), however, that person past tense and Past the code does not take ( when hehad succeeded, he was commended ). Another subtlety of the same kind: He had (past participle masculine), is his due (noun), but it is due . "The caret is the swallow of writing " ( Jules Renard ). 3 °. - The punctuation also deserves to retain your care. It is the breath of the language. Stop, express, explain, contrast, close, remove, link: Punctuation, docile servant and convenient, can perform all these tasks. The semicolon balancing the nuances, subtlety comes from " the it represents a point reinforced - with all the merit of clarifying it, it marks a stop light, not final "( C. Duneton, Figaro literary, September 18, 2003). It facilitates the exposure of a succession merging of ideas from each other, can cut a wide thinking " small concurrent proposals " ( C. Duneton, op. cit .). " We recognize at once a human trial for the use he makes of the semicolon " ( H. de Montherlant, Notebooks 1930-1944). " The difference between, and the: manifest the highest degree the sense of the shade, and what the shade if the thought in the bud? " ( J. Guitton, write as we remember, Fayard, 1974). Do not forget the question mark in interrogative sentences. In addition, try to make, even orally, your questions in the true form of a question, for example: you come from? (not you go out? and preferably at the inelegant do you go out? ). After a colon (: ) if the following includes a verb, and is thus a sentence, the first word should be capitalized (see Grevisse A., Le Bon usage, 9th ed., 1969, No. 170). In France the quotes are"" and not "" (used in the English-speaking countries), but these are used when quotes appear in a quote (I hope that the transfer of the text write html for the internet will not remove the difference between the two kinds of quotation marks!). Never use a colon (:) more than once in a sentence. I also think it is better not to put more than two interrogative sentences on. Here are some guidelines for the use of punctuation with the computer. We must leave a space before and after the colon, the semicolon, exclamation points and question mark, a space between " and the beginning of the quotation and before the end " , however, do not leave space before the comma, the end point or the start or end parentheses.Space is normally a noun, except in print where it is feminine, hence the use I have to do. For the apostrophe is preferable to ', and to avoid inelegant' (again, as long as writing html maintain the signs that I just wrote). When a sentence ends with a quotation in quotation marks, the end point should logically be put after the final quotation marks, as required by General de Gaulle (cf. Michel Law, the fires of sunset, Plon, 1977 216), but the editors publishers tend to put the full stop before the last quote.
4 °. - The accuracy of the pronunciation is important for certain words. Avoid the kind of porridge, delivered in a hurry, so many speakers on radio and television. Do not forget to pronounce double letters, such words do mma ge, e ss over ll e, i ll ICITE, prom ss e, synagogue llagmatique, etc. . Similarly, the connections must be made: For example to call the "s" of five hundred employees or contracts illegal.
5 ° . - Our syntax subjects the concordance of time to specific rules, albeit difficult. If you dominate the evil, they use a turn do not have to intervene. " It just does not reason with a rigorous syntax " ( Anatole France, The Latin genius ).
6 °. - Remember that:
- Beautifully is a superlative excellence, and is sufficient in itself, so it should not add the adverb " well " (the same for perfect and wonderful ).
- the point of view, the point of view. These expressions are followed by either a noun complement introduced by the preposition of , or anadjective epithet (eg From the formal point of view ) it is incorrect to juxtapose a noun (eg the point of view examination ). - Before, that, though, that although is imperative followed by the subjunctive (because it is made in the future so uncertain: Or the subjective is the time of the event and subjectivity, and therefore also of emotion). Before he graduated (pure possibility, unfortunately you will say). However, afterfollow-up is indicative or conditional (because the subject expresses a fact of which we are sure it has happened) Examples: He goes out after we made the coffee. It is a good memory after he lied (Cornelius). After the students had made (not had). The teacher said that you would receive after you have submitted your dissertation topic (and not after you). - Citizen is not a noun but an adjective , the term corporate citizenship (and others in the same vein) is faulty. A citizen is in fact an approach citizenship. - So. Do not abuse this combination!Similarly, the indefinite pronoun one is to use the least: It is inelegant and often inaccurate. - The word law is capitalized when the right target,otherwise it is spelled with a lowercase letter (subjective right ): View the Legal Vocabulary led by Dean Cornu (PUF) to the word right. -Approx. If it applies to the time it is an invariable adverb ( We will go to the mountains around the end of July ). If it relates to the place, he receives an "s" ( Around Toulouse ). - Es . Contraction of " them " can not precede a plural: Bachelor of Arts (but: In as guardian ). - TheState is spelled with a capital letter when it refers to the central government of a nation recognized as subject of international law, but with a lower case in all other cases, especially in the phrase " the rule of law " , which simply means " rule of law " , that is to say, a legal order. The State shall ensure its proper observance, the guarantee, however, as is its normal function, it suffices to say and write without adding state law.The state capital put the word in the phrase rule of law is more than a spelling error: It's a lack of direction, a contradiction. And the capital is again incongruous that in " the state of affairs " , " the inventory ", " the mood " , which no one dreams of putting it. - Obvious . Describes first the right thing clearly in mind, what is certain, on the other hand, clearly describes what is immediately perceived by sight. This word should not be used to describe what is easy to perform, for example, do not say " successfully master switch is not easy " , but " it's not easy " . -Manufacturer s not 'not like writing manufacture . - Done . The participle is followed by an infinitive is always invariable, because it is one with the infinitive (eg The man œ works, we have been borne by our partners ). - Fund . This word has an "s" , even in the singular case of the business, a property or capital, which is not the case in the other direction ( the bottom of the bag, sea ... ) - He, she, they, their . These pronouns used as supplements can only represent people. Speaking of things and animals (who are living things), should be used in and there .This dog does not like the law students, it may bite you: E moves away yourself (not him). And he (she) is replaced by above (below it).Here's your bike, ride it (not on it) see the table, hide underneath (not in it), etc. . - M . This is the abbreviation for Monsieur. Is that of Mr.Mister . - Despite only be used only in the phrase " notwithstanding that he has " (some annoyance or unwillingly he feels), otherwise it should be used although or though. - Among . This preposition is invariable: it does so no "s" final. - Whatever is written in two words (regardless ) when it immediately precedes a verb (in this case always in the subjunctive). What is so adjective and s' grants. Some written as one word when it is before any other word that a verb. - Somewhere in an undisclosed location means (which will not or can not specify, for example: " It is somewhere in France " . Learn not the journalists who use this expression all the way, out of his senses. - Surrender is spelled with two letters d. Private Law this word is used mainly about the agents, who are accountable (C. civ., art. 1993). - Supposedly (invariable and without self t) are working only with respect to living persons (as that term implies that someone will say). In Apart from living people, the word called (variable) that is suitable, for example: The so-called contract. - Everything is invariable and adverb when means " completely " ," quite " . Example: A jacket while worn. - transitive verbs . These verbs can have a direct object (where the action made by the subject passes - passes - on a supplement) example: I look at the sky, I study the course. verbs intransitive can not take additional purpose: They provide for themselves a complete sense, as running, start, start, sleep, wander (high occupancy of students), walk, die, swimming, crying (often the fate of the poor teachers correcting copies by year-end ...). - Twenty-one hundred take a "s" and when multiplied by the end of the numeral: Eighty pounds, two hundred students , but without the "s" , one hundred twenty days as 1100 euros (for multiplication but not addition), eighty-two (for twenty is not the end).
V. also the site-francaise.fr academy, section news, and then click on the " Say, do not tell " .
7 °. - Do not use trademark to refer to an object. You do not say I take my Peugeot but my car, so why not say I use a ballpoint pen, a tape of an athletic shoe (tennis ...), etc. . rather than to quote their brands, which also sounds often appear in English denote a conversation in French?
Choose the right word, avoiding the word " password -all " , which have their uses, but laziness or neglect lead to use too often. " A word "improper " is not somehow a dirty word? Is there a mental health and almost a kind of moral probity in the " good use " words " (M. Tournier, the face value, Folio, 1996. - You can notice here the use of quotes within a quote, if the transfer in writing html has not changed!).
Here is a sample search of the precise word, about the verb to do and how to replace it in its various meanings:
it has built his house himself. The plant manufactures the engines. My tailor I crafted a comprehensive measure. God created the world.
He has produced three children. She gave birth to a daughter. My dog gave birth to two puppies.
The Constitution of the Fifth Republic, developed at the instigation of General de Gaulle , has established a new regime. She established a Constitutional Council. Rimbaud has composed admirable poems. Proust wrote a work of genius. Dean Ripert has written a treatise on commercial law. should be of the essence. It would be wise to stock up . He amassed a fortune large. This merchant has achieved remarkable results. His father allocates a pension. It provides for pocket money by small jobs. Do you sell stationery? He performed a quantum leap. He jumped two meters. It performs various tasks. This opera a U-turn. He sent his duty in one hour. I 'm busy this morning by the Civil Law. I study Law. I prepare the license, and I plan to become a corporate lawyer, to embrace this career. I have done my duty. It does not decideanything without consulting his father. If successful, it will be in Greece, before undertaking a tour of the Mediterranean. It continues to lament his fate. His negligence has led to his dismissal. He had to go a long way before arriving. Recently appointed to Toulouse , he explored the region. This pair of shoes has lasted five years. It weighs one hundred Kg " What do you think? " , says he. " You are wrong , " he repliedPaul. The scandal led to his resignation and has caused harm to the party. These various causes have determined the company Z to close its plant. The shock has caused a head injury. Your statement raises pity. How does it matter does it? Having contracted the flu, I was 40. InToulouse , the Garonne draws a curve. The line is more than ten km The Citroën C 3 costs in the twelve thousand euros. The reservoircontains fifty liters.
8 °. - Outlaw's ridiculous expressions : In the context of, in terms of, at, to look at (especially since you may fall), the coordinates (for address, telephone number , etc. .), time (for the appearance or the element of time), full (if one hand, it can not be a whole), ability to be (to be able to) The sense of history (the story does not make sense), the false elegance : Do not hide that you are aware, as to do that (or worse, as an 'to do), or the abominable as what (for: depending, on what basis). Do not imitate the people of the media who say thank you to Vou s tothank you.
It is unfortunate to season its about phrases such as say, let's say, I mean, it's true that, in fact, and so on., and a fortiori those that combine several of these expressions: " good, say that, in fact, uh, it's true that ...». Unfortunately I'm not making anything, hearing such talk at the University, on radio and television.
Beware of using many words become commonplace on radio and television, such as: cover (for interest , look, touch, affect), complexity (forcomplicated , obscure), contact (to get in touch with , get in, take language, touch, join, meet, talk and even contact), shake up (to move ),explain (to explain, make), in the end (to end at the end ), generate (to produce , generate, create, bring forth, cause, cause, cause, encourage,etc. .) initiate (to start , decide, promote, design, create, start, initiate, etc. .; say that it seems that the French language is poor!), hide (to hide , hide), opportunity (to opportunity , chance, opportunity, opportunity means that which is appropriate, as in the expression of discretionary prosecution), Runway ( for suggestion, solution, possible position, etc. .) position (to be placed , position and define) the problem (for thedifficulty , the question), learn a document (for the filling , answering questions), secure (for comfort ), solve (to solve ), stress (for stress , to observe, develop, identify, attract attention, highlight), grooming (of a law to reform , amendment, revision, and the Grooming is a word that is used only for dogs and cats), etc. .
In the same vein, be wary as AIDS (almost ...) neologisms and Anglicisms: RECORDED ( to take note of ), addiction ( addiction to )booster (to stimulate, boost ), reinforce (to establish , strengthen, consolidate, strengthen, support, corroborate, substantiate, confirm, strengthen, secure, reassurance, etc. .) dangerous (for dangerous , dangerous), responsible ( for charge ), complete ( to complete ), globalization (forglobalization ), impact (in fact , influence, therefore, impact, impact, outcome), drive (to start , promote), unreachable (for inaccessible ),initialize (to start ) nominated (for mentioned , quoted), overdose ( in overdose ), paradigm ( model ) partition (for sharing , cutting, stripping), recipe (besides the kitchen, reception, including a package) , perform (in the sense of understanding , input, design), rehabilitation(to restore a building or neighborhood) and avoid the ridicule of grotesque forms, such as the logistics hub to designate a warehouse .
Avoid pleonasms (repeat) like this: Add more, be true, prior authorization, collaborate, compare together, get down, get up, help each other (because each means vice versa), dazzle the eyes ( since hitting the eye is dazzled by a flash too bright), export abroad, an unexpected chance, to walk, meet with others, follow behind, complete unanimity, or even flying in the air, etc. .
Do not use the dreadful " what . " For example, write: It has been more successful than his work foreshadowed do (and not it has been more successful than his work foreshadowed).
Know that the past surcomposé by repetition of auxiliaries (I had met a student worker [meaning I happened to meet ...], I had seen, I hadstudied, etc.. ), often used in the southwest and Languedoc give to laugh (probably wrongly), and is therefore not included in the rest of France and Francophonie. It is better not to use it outside the areas indicated or in writing (as it is unknown grammars, although it was found in Old French from the twelfth century).
9 °. - Write or say
- Internet : The use of this word is modeled exactly on the telephone, radio, television, software, etc. . , Hence it should not be with a capital letter (this is a God or a mark) and, where appropriate, it must be preceded by the article.
- It is the recall (and non- IT to remember) and he remembers.
- Although , though - followed by the subjunctive - (and not even that).
- We have agreed to (and not we agreed).
- It has its challenges, this n ' is not easy (or will not be easy), not it is not obvious.
- It matters to me (and not indifferent to me this ).
- Close a discussion, a session (but close field).
- Starting in Paris, go to Paris (but not off to Paris ). On the other hand, from working with a location (leaving for Provence , to the mountain), also from the expression for a week, month, etc. . is not correct: It is absent as appropriate.
- To submit to an examination, in a contest (and not an exam, etc. .)
- Addressing a disadvantage (without "to" ).
- based on (and non- base).
- Develop a law, the drafting of a law (not make a law, making a law).
- As , for example, as well, but (only, and not two of the following words).
- A depression (not a depression ; depression is a transitive verb, so it is flawed to say I am depressed, and what right I am depressed, or during such teacher depresses me [ horresco referens !]).
- A disparate (feminine word) : His speeches and actions are a strange patchwork (disharmony).
- On the other hand (and not by cons, which is only allowed on the market, where this phrase is probably an abbreviation for shipment by cons- ).
- A solution of replacement , relief, replacement, substitution, a substitute (and not an alternative, in this sense it is a Anglicism. The alternative, in French, is a situation in which n ' is possible that two parties, in law, there are alternatives and obligations. In English, no alternative means that the possibility of a second choice).
- A dilemma (with two "m" ).
- The decision of a Court, a decision of the Constitutional Council, but the decision of a court.
- The Supreme Court case or dismiss the appeal, in which case it remains a decision (not confirmed, since it is not a third degree of jurisdiction). About that court, never use the expression of Supreme Court which, legally, has a precise meaning.
- To , to, to, with the intention of, with the purpose of (and not in the purpose, the term is illogical: A goal is covered, but if you're in, it is achieved).
- A law has , states, decides prescribed, impose, order, expected (and not states, only state contractors).
- Come out wrong (not prove to be inaccurate, for means to happen for real, confirmed).
- assent (and not agreed). The agreement is a conjunction of two wills. The agreement is the property of either party. It is therefore impossible to agree. However, I can give my approval, my assent, and I can declare myself in agreement with others.
- Remove a complaint (and not complain) complaint (and not file a complaint). Complaint is an act abstract: This is to inform the court that I have to complain to someone. Filing a complaint is a concrete act: This is the physical document that I tabled the Prosecutor.
- Go to the hairdresser, dentist, etc. . (And not to), but go to the cinema, swimming pool, etc. . (Because, in the first case, this is going to a person, while in the second, we see in a public place).
- I'll write my statement of income (and not d tax).
- The mother of Paul, the book of Jacques (and not to).
- I read in the newspaper (and not on).
- At Toulouse and Toulouse (Toulouse I go to, I just Toulouse, I know all the bistros of Toulouse), and not on Toulouse (which would imply that I was over the city in an airplane) in the commercial, practice allows the expression " in the Place de Toulouse " ).
- Be at ease and comfortably installed (and not be comfortable; Anglicism).
- In the future (and not in the future, which is a verb tense, and its use as a name is Anglicism, however, the adjective future is correct, as in thefuture harm, the the future generations or future licensees ).
- I came into contact with the personnel department of the company Rainbow (or I made contact, made contact, got in the report), and nothave established a contact as a contact occurs by the encounter of two objects which, in any way can not be forged.
- rude and not rude.
- It is better (and not it is better).
- I will help as far as possible , or in the extent of the possible, and not in any measure of the possible.
- He's not (and no it's not him).
- It's not his fault (and not it's not his fault).
- Time taken (and not actual time, which is nonsense since, by definition, time is immaterial).
- immediately , instantly, forthwith, immediately, immediately (and not in real time, time aught necessarily real).
- I drive into town to 50 miles per hour (and per hour).
- It is ten five (not ten hours past five minutes, which is an English form).
V. also the site-francaise.fr academy, section news, and then click on the " Say, do not tell " .
10 ° . - know the precise meaning of certain words or phrases:
- busy says a store with many clients (barge), rather than a fully stocked store.
- Adequate : equal to the object (not not appropriate).
- Mountaineer applies to all mountains.
- Benefit : Can be to subject the person or thing that has. Example: You benefit from this measure, and not: This benefits you.
- This, those, those, those must be followed by the preposition of or a proposal, example: Those who were chosen (not: Those chosen).
- Consequent does not matter, but applied to things, " which follows logically " : A consistent behavior.
- Background , all text surrounding a word, phrase, a passage. Figuratively, all the circumstances attending an event, an action, but such use is not recommended by the French Academy : Medium, environment, environment are preferred.
- Conventional (outside the historical sense) that results from a convention should not be used in the sense of traditional, classical (Anglicism).
- Priest : Priest in charge of a parish (with a cure), the word is not synonymous with priest: Any priest is a priest, but not every priest priest.
- Domestic (from the Latin domus , house), which relates to the house (a pet), or the family (a person employed in the service of the latter).Does not mean inside: The term domestic flight (for an airline) is an Anglicism (unless by that we mean that it is a theft committed by a member of the house).
- From : preposition meaning time , should not be used to designate a place. It must be said: issue sent to Toulouse, I looked to my balcony (and not , in either case, since).
- Dont . The relative pronoun can not complete a name introduced by a preposition. For example, do not say a company which I welcome success, but the success of which I welcome.
- A kind of . The word species is female, regardless of the type of its complement. Example: An idiot (unfortunately many) ..
- Excessively . Make too much and, therefore, undesirable. Should be used as a pejorative. Do not say: He is extremely intelligent.
- Express . The noun is a person with special responsibility to convey the thought or the will of someone (by extension, express letter is to say, letter sent by special messenger). The word purpose means: by design, with formal intention (the feminine, the adjective is expressed, for example: The express condition ...). In one as in the other the "s" final is silent (as in cypress). The word express (with two "s" , Anglicism) is a relatively rapid transit service and coffee prepared by steam.
- Grandpa ( Grandma ) does not mean senior.
- Habitat . Does not mean housing, but the geographical environment satisfies the conditions necessary to the existence of an animal or plant species.
- Initiate : Suppose there is an initiation. This verb does not mean you start, initiate or take the initiative.
- Instance . Application before a court. The term the " highest levels " is ludicrous.
- Novation : This is a legal term (substitution of a new obligation for an old obligation is extinguished), do not use that word in the sense of innovation.
- Score : All the parts of a musical composition (and, more rarely employed, the divisions of a shield). Do not use in the sense of sharing, cutting, dismemberment.
- Punctual . Means the quality and accuracy, in geometry, means something that can be assimilated to a point. Out of these senses, the use of spot is in bad taste (but not prohibited).
- episode : Characterizes an important and unpredictable, causing a sudden change of situation. Does not mean an event of little importance.
- Pretext . This is the obvious reason that is used to mask the real motive of an action. Hence it is tautological to speak of false pretense, an excuse is always wrong by definition. Say: A poor excuse, or a specious pretext.
- Reluctance . Deliberate omission of a fact that the subject should reveal (as in the fraud by concealment). Not to be used in the sense of reserve, restraint, hesitation.
- Risking . It poses a danger. It is therefore inappropriate to use this word for a happy event, but want to ironic. Claire may fail and not be received (it is likely to be received).
- Punishing does not mean to punish, but to confirm, approve.
- Without denial must be built without even if followed by any, person or anything, in these sentences that have a positive sense. Example:Without anyone to oppose (not no one can ... ).
- Sentence : In general usage is synonymous with a maxim, but in its precise legal meaning, the sentence is a decision of an arbitral tribunal (cf. C. proc. civ., art. 1470 et seq.)
- Solution of continuity . This expression is a real trap because, far from signifying that ensures continuity, it means an interruption , a break , the reason lies in the fact that the word solution does not come here to solve but to dissolve.
- Following : Phrase commercial inelegant and incorrect, should be avoided. Contact: E n response to your letter, or as a result of our conversation ... - And again: For purposes of section 1382 and not pursuant to article 1382. And do not use away for now. Means on one after another, without interruption, so that immediately means immediately, immediately.
- Suspected of : Not synonymous capable. I am likely to receive, to feel, to suffer, but I can give or do. A building could be improved, an architect is able to design and contractor to achieve them.
- Especially that should be avoided; replace all that, especially since.
- Technology . The art of developing, using, transmitting or study a technique (as well as methodology does not mean method, but reflect on the methods). The word has a broader meaning than technique. Often technology is used improperly - so pedantic that wants learned (as he is a Anglicism) - instead of technique.
- too . Brand excess. It is ridiculous to say or write too well.
- Verdict. Declaration by which the Assize Court answers the questions of fact raised by its chairman. Do not use it as a synonym for trial or arrest.
11 ° . - Do not confuse:
- Acceptance, acceptance . Acceptance means action to accept, then an acceptance means is preferably (justice is no respecter of persons) or service (one word).
- Bring, bring : Driving in leading, can not apply that 'people and some animals animals verbs bring and working to bring inanimate objects.
- Turn out (to give true) and be. be true is a tautology, and be false is a non- sense (the term is appropriate to be false ). It is fair to say: This contract is found to be in office, this chandelier happens to be silver metal, Mr. Thomas turns out to be a bandit.
- Conjecture : Opinion based on probability or supposition, not to be confused with conditions (situation arising from a series of fortuitous circumstances).
- Copy to copy (eg photocopy me this document in twenty copies).
- mail and letter or message (mail). The word e is a set of letters or messages (at least potential: The factor brings the mail, even if he has a letter for you. - V. definition of e given by the Dictionary of the French Academy: " A strange group. All letters, newspapers, etc.., transported by land, sea or air. [...] Specialties. All letters received or sent by a person or community " ). Should not be used to describe a single letter, so do not say or write: In response to your letter dated May 25, but in response to your letter of May 25
- Decade : interval of ten years; decade : ten days.
- The defendant (person against whom a court application is made) and defender (person, usually a lawyer for the defense of a litigant).
- Drawing and design : The "e " added the second word changes the meaning (project, goal, intention).
- Layout and device : By law, the device is the final statement of a trial or a decision containing its decision (a More broadly, legal and extra, this word means all the means used to achieve a goal). For a lawyer, a provision refers to matters dealt with in a text in the plural all the points decided. It is awkward to write the device adopted by Law No. .. . And it is better to speak of the provisions of that Act.
- Damage and injury . In precise legal language, the injury means an injury, while the damage is the result of the injury. Seeing me A thug struck violently, I fell and broke my right arm (the damage), which m 'was unable to perform my tours as a representative (my shortfall is the damage). Similarly, it is preferable to use the term damages and interest (such as the Civil Code of 1804 with one exception), rather than damages that has spread in recent texts: In fact, damages are compensation for the loss (damage), and interest loss of profit (the injury).
- Enter and go . A student who has miraculously obtained the license becomes master and one who has failed at the second session may, if it does not give up, back in the second year (enter again). Similarly, a distinction should be added and add (add new), make and bring (bring back), copy and recopy, etc..
- Globalization and globalization . Globalization is to bring the action within the whole, this word is not accepted by the French Academy , and in addition, is often misused in the sense of globalization (as it actually says globalization in English) .
- mistakes and errors . The errors (always plural) are the usual ways of acting. Theophanes may become a saint, but certainly not a great jurist, given his mistakes (eg to spend more time in worship to study the course). This is not a synonym for error, which is the fact of being wrong.
- The faith or good faith with the liver (organ, with e final).
- grantee and applicant . The grantee is a candidate who got what he asked (diploma, title), so it's not someone seeking something.
- By : Do not confuse with the hand, especially in the expression by its quality (or nature).
- Opportunity . Character of what is appropriate, favorable circumstance, because it seems appropriate to do so, does not mean opportunity (as it was then a anglicism indeed occasion said Opportunity in English).
- Perpetuating (make it last) and commit (make, execute, commit).
- ruling (which must precede the trial) and detrimental (causing damage to anyone).
- Beginnings , premise . Beginnings (always plural) means the first fruits of the land or livestock; figuratively the beginning, the beginning.Premise means the first two propositions of a syllogism.
- Ready (I'm willing to, I'm ready to go). Do not confuse with almost (I'm about to, I am about to leave).
- Promise and stipulate . Promise is a commitment, it is stipulated get a commitment (from the Latin stipulare ). The promise is normally made by the debtor, the stipulation does the creditor. In a bilateral contract, each debtor and creditor states and promises. Article 1119 Civil Code implies that distinction. Stipulate the verb can not strive for the legislature, but only for the contractors.
- Project and proposed legislation. A bill from the government, a proposal by Parliament.
- Cast , reshuffle . Do not confuse fold (belittling) and reshuffling (beat again). We dinned into the ears of someone, but there are killjoys, a banal topic is hackneyed, but a collar can be folded.
- Revisit , review and replay . I revisited the gallery of the crown jewels of the Louvre, I reconsidered Planiol theories on the concept of contractual liability, I read The Thoughts of Pascal.
- Rustic and old . Country furniture is rustic and can be old. Any old piece of furniture is rustic, far from it, such as those who are in the Elysée Palace, and which are from royal or imperial.
- Except and unless . Except means to leave, at the risk of (I'll leave by boat, except to sink).
- Second and second . It is best to use when the second list stops at two (his second son = the last, the second paragraph of Article 1100 of the Civil Code = last) and second in the opposite case ( = is his second son he has other, the second paragraph of Article 1384 = there are others).
- Exit and remove . I leave the house, I remove my pen from my pocket.
- Amazed (adjective indicating a state) and stunned (past participle of the verb amazing). Martin was amazed to meet with Jeanne Augustine.He was shocked to meet her in this place and gave him the rebuke. The audience was stunned by such a speech. For my part I confess that the conduct of Jeanne amazes me.
- You and Yours . Your (without accent) is used before a name (your rod, your husband); yours, with the circumflex, in other cases (the idea is yours, yours is better). The same subtlety and for our own.
12 °. - OFFICIAL NEOLOG
Several orders have published lists of neologisms official, to replace foreign words (as provided by the decree of July 3, 1996 relating to the enrichment of the language). Their use is mandatory, since the French, is itself under the Act of August 4, 1994, as recalled by a circular from the Prime Minister ( OJ of 21 March 2003). The lists of terminology can be found on the website of the General Delegation for the French language (http://dglf.culture.fr). Some of these terms or expressions to be used.
V. also the site-francaise.fr academy, section news, and then click on the " Say, do not tell " . and the site wikilf.culture.fr
Factoring (factoring) Business (business) display (display) Display (to display) Organiser (Organizer) contact info (impresario) Online Help (hot line) love (Liker) Alert the results (profit warning) Host site (community manager) Appearance , layout, look, style (look)Watering (spamming) Motorhome (RV) Jet aircraft (jet) -bodied aircraft (jumbo jet) player (Walkman) Podcast (podcasting) Safety barrier (firewall) word of the computer Binette or frimouse (emoticon, smiley) Notepad (Blog)
Shop open (free shop, duty or ...) Purpose (Goal) framework (frame), word of the internet. Cameraman (cameraman) Calendar, timing(timing) Dinghy (Dinghy)
VC (venture-capital)
Caravan (trailer), Caravan (RV)
Chat (chat), word of the Internet CD-ROM (CD-Rom) call center (call center) Leaseback (lease back) Chalenge (with one l) or, in sporting challenge (challenge). JV (joint venture) Sponsor (sponsor) Sponsor or sponsor (sponsor) E-commerce (commerce on line) majors(major) Hub (hub), word of the Internet Container (container) Course in court (forum shopping) Credit lease (leasing) compact disc(compact disc) Distribution (dispatching) Casting (casting) Electronic Data Interchange , abbreviated EDI (Electronic Data Interchange)crash or accident (crash, a plane) Emplettes , race ( shopping) at sea (offshore) set (package) Coach (coach, coach of the English word comes from the French box!) Training or education (training) away pin (pin) Exclusive (Scoop) ... information given in phishing (phishing)Training (training)
Forum (newsgroup), word of the Internet Fouineur (hacker), word of Internet Franchising (Franchising) Maverick , sniper (sniper) Fair play (fair play)
Frimouse or smiley (emoticon, smiley) Goalie (goal keeper) Stewardship information (facility management) Government and corporate governance (corporate governance) group (pool) Lobby (Lobby), see below Influençage.
Phishing (phishing) Premium (standard) Hypertext (hypertext), word of computers and the Internet.
Icon (icon), the word computer Influençage (lobbying) Engineering (engineering) surfer (Internet users)
Joint venture (JV)
Self-service (self service) list or listing (listing) Checklist (Checklist)
Shop (shopping, shopping) Management , but pronounced the French, the word from the French MBA , cash flow (cash flow) Walking(jogging) E-mail. (as such. phone), e-mail (e mail), or the most elegant email , designed by Quebecers. Mentor (coach) Mentoring(coaching) Web Producer (web agency) model (for paradigm) Expansion Module (plug-in), the word Internet Message (advertising, spot)spamming (spamming)
Emergency number (hotline)
Market operator or dealer market (for trading), options on securities (stock options) on the web page (web page) Awards (hit parade)Sponsorship (sponsoring) Holders of interest (stakeholders) Swap (swap), word computer Pipeline , delivered at the French (pipe line)Pirate (cracker), word of the Internet planograms , or calendar, workload (planning) Post Sound (play back) spam (spam) Primacy(leadership)
Discount , rebate (discount) fee (royalty, royalties) Regulate (to dispatch, dispatcher) Restart (booster, to boost) Think méniges (brain storming) Distribute , or assign, distribute, control (to dispatch, dispatcher) Mobile home ( mobile home) Fast food (fast food) Flashback(flashback) meeting , encounter (meeting) Discount , discount (discount)
Airbag (airbag) Know-how (know how) scanner (scanner) online service (hot line) Servo (servo control) Company (firm) solo show (one man show) Stylique (design) Overbooking (overbooking)
Fax , abbreviated Tcp (fax, from the Latin facsimile ) web (web, world wide web literally means the World Wide Web ) Transporter (car ferry, ferry boat) Networking (networking) Guardian (coach) recreational vehicle (RV) View (to display) Tour Operator (tour operator)zapping (zapping
On the other hand, it is preferable not to use English words that do not exist, or that are not used with the meaning given to them in France. For example a tennis player and rugby is not an English tennis player or a rugby player , but a tennis player and a rugby player. He who has a record not a record holder , but a record holder, a radio presenter or television is not a speaker but an announcer .
Concluding remarks Bibliography. - For the reasons and historical, cultural, political and economic to use their language correctly read, Ph. Lalanne-Bertoudicq, Why speak French (ed. Fleurus, 1993); C. Hagege, On behalf of the diversity of languages and cultures (ed. O. Jacob, 2006); P.-M. Coûteaux, Being and speak French, Perrin, 2006. And against those who degrade the French, B. Lecherbonnier, Why do they want to kill the French ? Albin Michel, 2005. On the virtues of linguistic diversity (and therefore against the "all Anglo-American" ), D.Volton, Demain la francophonie, Flammarion, 2006. Finally, the history of French and English, set in parallel, H. Walter, Evil be to him who evil thinks (The incredible love story between the French and English), the paperback, 2006 (in particular contain lists of English words borrowed from French and vice versa, and lists of "false friends " ). To help you with the knowledge of the language I highly recommend some excellent books: Mr. Druon (former Permanent Secretary of the French Academy ), The Good French, or a fight that's worth, The Publishing Rock, 1999. - V. Dupré also, in Encyclopedia of good French contemporary usage, ed. Treviso (3 volumes, 1972). - Mr Greve,The proper use (Hatier, republished regularly, over 1200 pages). - A. Thomas, Dictionary of the difficulties of the French language(Oxford, Cambridge, reprinted regularly). - P. Rambaud, Grammar having fun, Grasset, 2007, 12 euros (a grammar joke). There is also a very valuable website (httpp: / / coursenligne.univ-artois.fr, then click on French language in the window Unrated).
Finally, I note that the dictionnairede the French Academy , the only one with an official value, is available online (http://atilf.atilf.fr/academie.htm). The Treasury of the French language computer is as valuable (http://atilf.atilf.fr). Other useful sites include dictionaries: Orthonet, correcting the spelling of the search term while providing appropriate its agreements and its conjugations (www.sdv.fr / Orthonet) of the CNRS, giving the synonyms of the area input (http://elsap1.unicaen.fr/cgi-bin/cherches.cgi) and finally, Cactus 2000, giving the conjugations of verbs 140 (www.cactus2000.de/fr/conif/).
IV. - SOME BASIC USES
| | Most young people believe to be natural
when they are just rude and coarse (La Rochefoucauld). |
Politeness, giver of peace, expresses respect for others and maintaining harmony in social relations, which explains why it is so designated by the word so exact knowledge of the world, even if it is appearance.Grow it!- To arise, it should be stated first and last name ( by Bertrand DUPONT ), without taking the madam, miss or sir.These securities are customary for others and, in this case, by contrast, do not use the name (example: Say Hello sir or Hello sir, and not Bonjour Monsieur Durand ).
- It's always the oldest person, or most importantly, reach out, if she wishes, she greets someone.
- Tactless person who says to apologize ( I apologize ), a lawyer thinks Nemo auditur ... ; That others can excuse us: We can only pray others to do so ( I apologize , or, as the poor Queen Marie Antoinette who inadvertently walking on the foot of the executioner who was beheaded, keeping to the end the exquisite politeness of the old regime, he said, Sir, I beg you to excuse me ).
- Do not respond to a request, no (or yes), but yes ma'am (miss, sir, Jeanne and Pierre). Attention! in French is yesyes and no yeah (let alone OK ) or totally, absolutely grotesque or you go and it works .
- On the envelopes, madam, miss or sir should always be written in full. It is possible to be satisfied with the first initial, that is to say his first letter and only one, except to write the name in full, except for the name Philipabbreviated as Ph . (the phi Greek).
- Respond promptly to shippers of all the packages, letters, faxes and emails (emails) that you receive, even if only to inform them of their arrival. If an author sends you an article or book please him a detailed letter of thanks.
malapris It is particularly not to respond almost immediately to emails, the sender who chose this rapid means of communication for a prompt reply. It is important to open your email at least twice a day! If not, do not share your email address!
other hand, there is no reason not to follow in your email the usual forms of letters, whether for the header or the salutation (V . on this below), except to intimate messages. So, do not start your messagesHello and do not finish by Yours (except, again, with friends).
- At the end of your letters, emails and also, take care of what is known as the salutation, which varies by gender, status and age of your correspondent. Thus, a married woman, it is please accept his homage, and his respectful homage (by age respective correspondents). At a respectable man, bigger and older than we, for example a distinguished professor of civil law, we write: " Please accept, Mr. Professor, the assurances of my great respect "(and possibly , grateful), it is obviously desirable to be both lively these noble sentiments! It is presumptuous to send his best wishes, or cordial to someone older or larger than itself, and incorrect to settle for ' a ' good for you "! (Or, worse, the English formula " sincerely " ). Do not write, that whatsoever, " J e ask you sincerely believe in" (as one does not believe in greetings) if you want to use the formula Regards write: " J e Please receive my best regards " . Keep the proper distance (according to the remarks given above), even if the caller uses formulas familiar to you. Thus, a teacher may, by kindness, give dear friend to a PhD student or an ATER (or send its kind sentiments, or even call him by his first name), which does not allow him to take this expression in response (or call it by its name). Some professionals, including legal professionals, are used to finish their letters or emails by a formula involving the expression of their " feelings dedicated "it is obviously relevant than in relation to clients: When you become a such a professional, do a similar formula to good effect (which is by no means always the case).
- As you old and "move up the ranks," you change the salutation. But you take care to maintain a deferential formula corresponding to your old older and formerly most important (although now, your rank is the same, even if you passed).
- Use your first name (possibly double, as Anne-Marie and Jean-Pierre), but do not mention the letter of your middle name. I do not sign my articles Philippe F. (No Ph. F.) the Tourneau. This is an American usage, he explained historically by the small number of surnames that once existed in the United States of North America: it allows you to distinguish between homonyms.
- The use of chewing gum is banned in public. The cigarette is permissible only after having requested and obtained permission of those present and subject to the provisions that regulate the use.
- It is rude to yawn in public (even the crows or doves). As possible to resist the urge, even if you find the course boring, if unable to keep you, hide unsightly gesture with your hands.
- Have a bit of respect for your teachers. Let them pass the gates and in the corridors, spread you!
- Place yourself in the classroom early. It is for you to wait for the teacher, not one to wait until you install.
- Arrive on time, as a courtesy to the teacher and to classmates. If by chance, once you arrive late, be as unobtrusive as possible, go sit quietly in the place nearest to you.
- Do not throw paper on the floor, out of respect for yourself and others, including service personnel.
- Upon entering the buildings of the University and, a fortiori, in a classroom, the boys take off their hats, caps and other headwear.
- In winter, be sure to keep closed the doors of the entrances and halls s ' they are heated. As for the classrooms close radiators rather than ' open the windows.
- When leaving a classroom or TD off the lights. They are not there rules of politeness, but common sense to be applied in consideration of the general interest, which should guide your actions (although the temptation prevailing individualism, each one thinking that ' his little interest and poor personal benefits).
- Except in an emergency or intimacy, it is improper to call someone ' one older than themselves or greater than oneself.
- The mobile phone should be used sparingly, making sure not to interfere, its use is inappropriate in public places.
V. - SOME MAXIMS, TERMS & Latin words
A. - MAXIMES
- accessorium sequitur principale (the accessory follows the principal)
- Actio non nata non currit præscriptio (no limitation for before birth)
- Actor sequitur forum rei (the applicant enters the court of the defendant)
- Actor incumbit probatio ( proof is on the applicant)
- Contra non valentem agere non currit praescriptio (the prescription did not run against one who was unable to act)
- Culpa lata dolo æquiparatur (gross negligence is equivalent to willful misconduct)
- De minimis non curat Praetor (the lender, understand the judge is not concerned with trivial matters)
- From non non vigilantibus curat Praetor (the lender is not interested in neglect)
- Dies non interpellat pro homine (the end of the term not worth notice)
- Electa una via, non datur recursus alteram ad (a path is chosen, it is not possible to return to the other)
- Error facit jus communis (common mistake is the creator of Law)
- exceptio is strictissimi interpretatione (exceptions must be strictly construed - which does not mean narrowly -. JR Binet, strictissimi interpretatione exceptio is : A child conceived at the risk of biomedicine in Free Law. Mixtures in honor of Philippe le Tourneau, Dalloz, 2007, p. 85 et seq.)
- omnia Fraus corrumpit (fraud corrupts everything)
- Genera non pereunt (such things do not perish)
- Impossibilium nulla obligatio (it is no obligation when the object is impossible)
- In Aquilia lege and levissima veniet culpa (in law Aquilia is to say, in tort, the slightest fault is taken into consideration)
- in pari causa turpitudinis repetitio ceased (no repetition, that is to say, refunds, in the presence of an equal fault).
- Locus governs actum (the form of the act is set in place)
- not Malitiis is indulgendum (no indulgence for bad faith)
- which neminem lædit suo jure utitur (one who uses his right does not harm anyone)
- Nemo auditur propriam turpitudinem allegans (no one can claim his own fault)
- Nemo is contra subrogare censetur (everyone is presumed to be subrogated against itself)
- Nemo dat quod non habet or more juris Nemo ad quam ipse Allium transferred potest habet (no one can transfer to others more right than he himself)
- Nullum crimen, nulla animists sine lege (no offense no text)
- pacta sunt (agreements must be respected)
- Prior tempore potiori jure (the earliest is the first law)
- Quae temporalia ad agendum perpetua sunt ad excipiendum (the action is temporary, the exception is perpetual)
- Quod nullum is nullum producir effectum (which is zero has no effect)
- Res inter alios acta aliis neque nocere neque prodesse potest (the thing agreed between them will not damage or other benefits: privity of contract)
- Res judicata pro veritate habetur (res judicata is held to be true)
- Res perit creditor / debitori / domino (the loss for the creditor / debtor / owner)
- Solus consensus Oblig (requires the consent alone)
- specialia generalibus derogant (which is a special exception to what is general)
- Ubi emolumentum, ibi onus (where is the profit, that is the charge)
- Ubi Iex non distinguit nec distinguere our debet (where the law does not distinguish one should not distinguish)
- Volenti non fit injuria (we do wrong who agrees)
B. - TERMS AND LATIN WORDS
- Ab initio (from the start). - In limine litis (at the beginning of the trial)
- accipiens (one who receives the payment) - solvens (who pays)
- Ad nutum (of the = sign by the will)
- Ad probationem / solemnitatem / validitatem (for proof / solemnity constitutive / validity)
- affectio societatis (intention to partner in a company).
- Animus (intention) Donand animus (intent = liberal desire to give) cooperandi animus (intent to cooperate in a contract) .
- bonus pater familias (good father)
- Causa proxima / remote (because the closest / farthest)
- Culpa in contrahendo / in eligendo / lata (fault in the contract / in the choice / heavy)
- damnum emergens (loss proven). - lucrum cessans (lost profits)
- In in rem verso (restitution of the thing)
- From legeferenda (in the context of a reform of the law)
- Dolus bonus / malus (good fraud, deceit bad)
- Erga omnes (with respect to all)
- Ex aequo et bono (according to the just and equitable)
- exceptio non adimpleti contractus (except for breach of contract)
- In (in).
- In the abstract, in concrete ( abstract, concrete)
- Infans (infant)
- jointly and severally (in full)
- Instrumentum (instrument = instrument)
- a personal basis (in view of the person). The agency agreement is entered into a personal basis. The intuitu s personae of this agreement (nominative).
- mutuus consensus / dissensus (mutual consent, mutual dissent)
- Do varietur (unchanged)
- no-building (not to build: Easement of ...)
- Patientia principis (patience Prince: he survives events in the absence of expression, for example in Article 1244-1 of the Civil C.)
- Penitus extraneus (singular), extranei (plural): third complete stranger to the contract
- Post mortem (after death)
- praeter legem (next to the law)
- pain and suffering / stupri (price of the pain / of debauchery)
- Pro forma (for form)
- Quantum (amount)
- Rebus sic stantibus (the things remaining as is)
- restitutio in integrum (full restitution)
- Sine qua non (without which no; in course: condition ...)
- Solo consensu (by operation of consent)
- Sui generis (unique to a species, a kind, unique)
C. - MEANING OF SOME COMMON ABBREVIATIONS
- Contra (in the opposite direction)
- Dig. (Digest, with an " e " final)
- ie = id est, that is to say)
- Ibid , or ibid (same place)
- Id or ditto (or the the same)
- Infra, above (below or farther above or above)
- Op and loc. cit. = Opus and loco citation (book and place mentioned)
- V ° = verbo screw, verbs (word, words)
VI. - Of the Cartesian method
The Cartesian method is the best that is to study an issue. These are summarized below:
a) admit nothing as true which is not obvious;
b) divide each difficulty into as many parts as possible and would be required for better resolution,
c) always go from simple to compound;
d) make enumerations so complete and reviews so general that one is assured of omitting nothing.
VII. - Prayer of St. Thomas Aquinas before the study
Creator Ineffabilis that of thesauri sapientiae tuae very angelorum hierachias designasti and eas super miro caelum empyreumatic ordine collocasti, atque university partes elegantissimae disposuisti thou, Inquam, which verus fons luminis sapientiae and Dicer, atque supereminens principium: infudere digneris super intellectus mei tenebras tuae claritatis radium, duplicitous quibus natus in sum, has me removens tenebras, peccatum scilicet and ignorantiam. You, who linguas infantium Facis eloquent, linguam meam erudias, atque in labiis meis gratiam tuae benedictione infundibular. Da mihi intellegendi acumen, retinendi capacitatem, addiscendi modum and facilitatem, interpretandi subtilitatem, loquendi gratiam copiosam; ingressum instruments, directed progressum, egressum complement: Who are you and Deus homo verus, which vivis and reigned in saecula saeculorum. Amen.
TRANSLATIONIneffable creator who treasures of your wisdom have elected three hierarchies of angels and have set out in admirable order over the heavens,
who have so beautifully arranged parts of the universe,
you called the true Fountain of Light and Wisdom, and the pre-eminent principle,
deign to pour over the darkness of my mind, a ray of your light, stray away from me the double darkness in which I was born: sin and ignorance.
You, eloquent language that makes little children, fashion my words and pour upon my lips the grace of your blessing.
Give the penetration of the intelligence,
the ability to remember,
the method and the ease of the study,
the depth in the interpretation
and abundant grace of expression.
Strengthen my study,
head in the course,
perfect- in the end,
you who are true God and true man,
and live for ever and ever. AMEN.
VIII. - FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
A. - Alcohol and traffic accidents.
I feel a duty to draw your attention to temperance, in general, and especially when you drive.
On the one hand, because taking repeated high doses of alcohol, even sporadically during evenings " knockouts " , causes damage to brain areas (particularly the hippocampus), causing problems of knowledge and mental and long-term destruction of neurons, not to mention that alcohol is responsible for many cancers, liver disease and cardiovascular disorders.
In addition, because alcohol (with the speed it is true) is the cause of an increasing number of road accidents involving young people ( victims but also perpetrators). A quarter of accidents affecting young people today, with a number of deaths increased in absolute and percentage, while the total number of road deaths down in France.
There was in our country 3994 died in 2010 on the roads and 79,056 injured (these figures are very strong decrease compared to those before 2002, since the government has indicated its willingness to fight against this scourge, at the instigation of the President of the Republic of the time, Jacques Chirac, which shows that it is not inevitable, and thousands of lives have been saved: 11000 from 2002 to 2010 and in 2001 there were 7720 deaths on French roads, and 16,200 in 1971, the worst year, the safety cameras have contributed to the reduction of the speed and decrease the number of victims, the populist slogan that they are "money pump" is wrong, because if PV radar reported 590 million euros, which must be deducted the cost of 200 million, the annual cost of accidents in France is 25 billion euros). While traffic at night is only 10% of car traffic, accidents that occur during this period cause 37% of serious injuries and 46% of road deaths. Saturdays and Sundays the majority of them are perpetrators and victims of youth. 92% of accidents involve the driver's responsibility (that is to say that 8% of the resulting network state of force majeure - falling trees, etc. . - mistakes or third) .
Since the decrease in the rate, the majority of fatal accidents are alcohol related. Two glasses of wine for a man weighing 75 kg already increasing the risk of a fatal accident by two!
6% of accidents result from the use of mobile phones while driving (fourth cause of death, after alcohol, speed and not wearing seat belts). It is shown that the attention of automobilists greatly relaxes when they call, even with a hands-free device (use a phone while driving, even with a hands-free device, multiplied by eight the risk of accidents); So, ban the use of phones while driving, if you feel necessary to call, stop in a parking lot (not anywhere!). Do not forget to fasten seat belts, including the rear seats. The lack of seat belts is now the third leading cause of accidental death, nearly 400 lives could be saved each year if all occupants buckled up.
Since the Liberation (1945), the traffic accidents caused more deaths in France Hitler, and more injuries than the 1914-1918 war!
Be aware of these risks, avoid them for you and for others. In short, be responsible! Before a party, designate a driver who will not drink alcohol (not a drop), to bring his passengers safely. And put yourself in the head as well know how to drive is not to learn to go fast, which is easy today, even small cars can reach high speeds. The good driver is one who is able to go slowly, in accordance with regulations and taking into account the weather conditions, fatigue, etc. . On the other hand, I remind you that the rules of the Highway Code are not reserved for motorists. They also apply to pedestrians, motorcyclists and other two-wheeled vehicles, including speed limits. L e number of drivers of such vehicles, perpetrators and victims of accidents, often very serious, is growing steadily .
B. - Drugs
Various drugs at first provide some good feelings, but all have adverse effects (in the sense of the term " soft drug " is misleading). I only indicate below the main ones. They depend on the frequency of consumption and psychological state of the subject. One of the most serious is the addiction, which is actually a alinéation the freedom of " addict ", compounded by addiction that forced him to regain sensation, to increase the dose and move on to harder drugs.
- Tobacco relaxes, stimulates, reassuring. It is highly addictive. It is the cause of cancer in four, and many cardiovascular diseases. It causes more than a hundred thousand deaths per year in France. As a result of various incentives, cigarette consumption declined by 4.6% in France from 1995 to 2005, must continue in this direction.
- Antidepressant drugs (of which France is the world's largest consumer per capita) excite, disturb the behavior and make it highly addictive.They can still be a doctor's prescription in case, for which they are beneficial.
- The ecstasy can excel. But after taking the consumer risk of dehydration, anxiety and depression. It is especially dangerous for asthmatics, heart patients and diabetics.
- Cannabis makes gay, soothes or lulls. But to a degree it has the immediate effect of preventing work, blurred vision and the perception of time, cause anxiety, create language disorder and motor coordiantion. Even in small doses, it causes difficulties in attention, because every year the death of a young centainde by traffic accident.
It also produces delayed effects: memory loss, psychological dependence, decrease the presence of sperm in men, and the presence of cycles without ovulation in women, lung cancer and upper tract aérodigestivees (mouth, pharynx, esophagus and larynx); depression in girls. In heavy users, it creates a high risk of schizophrenia in five years.
- Cocaine has the effect of providing fast euphoria, a certain indifference to pain and fatigue, a sense of intellectual agility. But it accelerates the heart rate, causes panic attacks and paranoia, and creates a serious psychological dependence.
- Heroin makes and causes a euphoric state of ecstasy. It quickly creates a highly addictive, creates stroubles of sleep and eating behavior.When injected, there is a risk of contamination of AIDS and hepatitis C, and " overdose ".
- Drug pushing to suicides, more and more young people (in France is their leading cause of death), without the national community seems to move away, while a series of suicides of employees France Telecom in 2009 raised a media storm. The suicide rate in this country is 17 per 100,000 (but much more among the young, and somewhat less among employees of France Telecom : 15 per 100,000).
